Slavery In The Abrahamic Religions Theology Religion Essay

Slavery In The Abrahamic Religions Theology Religion Essay Today we think of slavery as condemning humans to lifetime bondage, working without wages and maltreated. However, slavery seems to have been a common phenomenon in many ancient civilizations such as Babylon, Egypt, and China. Most slaves were war prisoners, kidnapped or obliged to pay for debts. They were the property of the master, with little or no rights or status. Many of them were treated cruelly even though most ancient civilizations had some laws to regulate slavery, such as the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi. This kind of slavery also existed during the lives of Moses, Jesus and the Prophet Mohammad. Most of the slaves, at that time, were prisoners of wars. They could be killed, raped and sold at any moment. The three Abrahamic religions dealt with the slavery institutions in different ways, they didnt not abolish it, but each one them regulate it in a way that goes with the norms of the society. Slavery in Islam Islam tried to solve the problem of the slaves that were in the Arabian Peninsula by encouraging people in different ways to set their slaves free. The Muslims were ordered that in reparation of some of their sins they should emancipate their slaves. As a start, and because it is harder to change a cultural habit, Islam regulated the institution of slavery and improved the treatments of the masters toward their slaves. In many verses of the Quran, it is clearly stated that all the human are the descended of one ancestor, that no one is superior to the other regardless of the race, ethnicity or the social status. The prophet Muhammed also ordered his Umma (Community) to threat the slaves and the servants as they were their brothers and to give them from what they eat and what they wear. He also ordered that the slave shouldnt be given any work beyond his capacity and if it is necessary the master must help him. This good treatment of the masters had a positive consequence on the attitudes of slaves to their masters. The slaves kept their humanity and moral dignity and become a member of their masters family.  Moreover, the slaves also enjoyed the right to keep their religion and to have a family, to earn money and to own a property. According to Islam teaching, humans are free and were born free. It is the natural and proper condition which must be considered as the norm. Therefore, to liberate a slave is one of the highest virtues. To emancipate a slave is considered equal to save its own life from the wrath in the next world. In Islam people were encouraged to enter into agreements and contracts which enabled slaves to earn or be granted their freedom at the expiry of a certain term or, most typically, on the death of the owner. At that time, there were occasions when groups of wealthy people, acting together, would buy and set free many slaves in order to obtain thereby the favor of God. Islam has commended humanity in the treatment of slaves, and encouraged their liberation. We can see from the history of many different peoples in the Islamic world that slaves quickly integrated into the main society and achieved positions of great status and power, some of them even gained their freedom. Slavery in Christianity In the early Christianity, slavery was considered as natural phenomena. In the Old Testament there is no specific condemnation of slavery. On the contrary, it does approve and regulate it and ensures that the traffic and ownership of human beings proceeds in an acceptable manner. In the New Testament, it is stated that Jesus did not express disapproval of the enslaving of people. However, in spite of some critics against Jesus claiming that he didnt abolish slavery, it undeniable that he explicitly stood against every form of injustice. The mission of Jesus was Furthermore, in the New Testament it is clearly indicated how a good Christian must treat slaves: the Christian masters must call Christian slaves brothers. It also stated that masters must how kindness, justice, and tolerance toward their slaves and that their position, as master, meant responsibility and duty. Paul, in his letters, also reminded Christians to treat their slaves as brothers and sisters. He emphasized on the justice and fairness toward slaves. Paul also asked Christians to consider them as morally responsible human beings who are also a part of the body of the Christ and asked the slaves to obey to their masters. He also explained that spiritual status is more fundamental and important than social status. Paul was not opposed to the freedom of slaves if the opportunity arose but believed that God had called people to different positions in life and they were to live out the Christian life in the position in which they were called. Slavery in Judaism At the time of the Old Testament, there were two types of slavery; the ownership of foreign captives or war prisoners and the type of contractual servitude, where an Israelite is for a certain time a slave to another Israelite, usually because he has become poor and has no other option. An Israelite, in biblical law, is guaranteed certain rights both while a slave and upon liberation. The first possible reference to slavery in the Old Testament is in Genesis where Noah cursed Canaan for the sin of his son Ham and predicted that he would be the servant of his brothers. Both the prophets Abraham and Isaac had servants; however, the first clear example of slavery is in Exodus where the Israelites were made to work as slaves. According the Exodus, the Israelites were slaves in Egypt and their situation was clearly unacceptable to God, judging by their rescue and the regulations regarding slavery in the Mosaic Law. Slavery in the Mosaic Law After the Israelites had left Egypt the acquisition of slaves were organized by the Mosaic Law which permitted them to make slaves of Jews and Non-Jews people. The law states clearly that the Jews must treat their Hebrews slaves as if they were their servants. They must also give them the possibility of their freedom in the 7th year of their service, and provide them the resources to start a new life even though they can remain a slave if they want. In the exodus it is declared that anyone who put a man to slavery against his will must be killed. Furthermore, there were many laws dealing with violence against and the slaves and the ones who ran away from their masters must be protected and not returned. The Israelites were also allowed to buy slaves from other nations and to keep them for an indefinite period as slaves, nevertheless they were included in the commonwealth of Jewish community, and they could participate in festivals and were given the Sabbath rest. In the twenty one century, slavery is considered as a violation of human rights and it is abolished by all the nations and the majority of religions. However, the texts of the Abrahamic religions( Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) refers clearly to the slavery institutions as common one and it is viewed as acceptable at that time. Indeed, all the three religions regulated the slavery, developed laws for it and organized it in a way to preserve the slaves dignity and life. This pushes us to wonder, why the Abrahamic religions that value the life of a human being didnt abolish slavery in their texts. It is clear that the three religions were born at a time where slavery was a common practice and most of the societies were against any reforms that could change their habits and cultural practices. For these reasons and according to some explanations, the three religions didnt abolish slavery at the beginning, however they were against the inhuman treatments and try to regulate in order to improve the life of the slaves and to preserve their human dignity. In Islam, slavery was at first regulated and then abolished by the time of the caliph Omar Ibn Al Khatab, however, it didnt ended the slavery in the Islamic world. In Christianity and Judaism, slavery was justified by the curse of Ham and for some Christians and Jews it is Gods will on earth. In spite of the religious regulation and abolishment, the human rights and worldwide organization, slavery still exists in the twenty-one century but in a modernize form. Some scholars claim it is neither the outcome of cultural practices nor the consequences of a certain religions. According to them, slavery is a part of the human nature that seeks to have power on another human being and to control it in order to satisfy the human ego.

Irish American Segregation

In the 1960’s and 1970’s there was a lot of different types of segregation throughout the world, particularly in the United States. The more people immigrated here the worse the segregation became. One particular group that I was interested in learning about was my ancestors the Irish-Americans. They faced a lot of segregation just for the fact that they were Irish and they were not born in the United States. But it was not just the fact that they were not born here because even the Irish-Americans who were born here were discriminated against just because of where their parents or grandparents came from. The Irish after the civil rights movement with Dr. Martin Luther King held the same type of movement to be able to gain their rights. But it was all ended with a massacre in Northern Ireland that killed 14 civilians who were participating in a peaceful march to gain their civil freedoms. Many of the Irish who had immigrated to American for freedom were held at the same standards as they were in their own country and that was as low class citizens. They were discriminated against as bad as the African Americans even though there were laws that were supposed to protect them from this type of treatment. Many Irish-Americans who were being treated unfairly held protests and hunger strikes but not until things got to the extremes was the problem resolved and even then it was only a temporary solution. Many times the segregation was used in housing, jobs and a very large portion in education. The children in schools were treated differently just because they were not from America. The start of the immigration of The Irish to the American was for a new chance and then years later it was due to the failure of the potato crop in Ireland. Many of the Irish–Americans lived in devastating amounts of poverty and tried to find any work they could but with many people not trusting the Irish-Americans they refused to hire them. The Irish were not only an ethnic group but they were a Religious Minority Group at least until the end of the civil war. After the civil war because of their great numbers in the north they were able to turn the tides and were no longer a minority. They took control of government among other things. They went from being one of the most discriminated against free Americans to having an Irish-American being resident. â€Å"Thomas Beer identifies reasons why many were prejudiced against the Irish. The American Protective Association feared that the Irish were making America a Papal state: priests were allowed to ride trains free in California and Irish aldermen had attempted to fund parochial schools with funds from the city treasury. † This is just a small example in ways that the Irish-Americans were treated differently in America. Once they started earning their rights back they abused that power to get the things that they wanted. All the Irish-Americans in society were then discriminated and segregated from society once again. Because many Irish-Americans were abusing their rights and setting trends that made a stereotype for the other Irish-Americans, all Irish-Americans were treated that way. They were then back to being told â€Å"No Irish Need Apply† when they went looking for work and the only place that did not have that sign posted was the United States Army recruiting offices. They did not care if you were from here just as long as you were a citizen you could find work in the army.

Liquid Chromatography

9. 1 Orbitals and Theories of Chemical Bonding 1. Which one of the statements concerning valence bond (VB) and molecular orbital (MO) bond theories is correct? a) MO theory predicts that electrons are localized between pairs of atoms. b) In VB theory, bonding electrons are delocalized over the molecule. c) MO theory accurately describes bonding in O2 and NO, VB theory does not. d) VB theory can describe molecular bonding in excited states. e) MO theory is used to accurately predict the colors of compounds. Answer: c 9. 2 Valence Bond Theory 2. Which of the following statements is/are CORRECT? . The overlap between an s orbital and a p orbital is called a pi-bond. 2. The overlap of two s orbitals in H2 is called a sigma bond. 3. HF is formed from the overlap of a hydrogen 1s orbital with a fluorine 2s orbital. a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 onlyd) 2 and 3e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: b 3. Which of the following statements concerning hybrid orbitals is/are CORRECT? 1. The number of hybrid orbitals eq uals the number of atomic orbitals that are used to create the hybrids. 2. When atomic orbitals are hybridized, the s orbital and at least one p orbital are always hybridized. 3. To create octahedral structures, two d orbitals must be hybridized along with the s and all three p orbitals. a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 onlyd) 2 and 3e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: e 4. How many sigma (? ) bonds and pi (? ) bonds are in ethene, C2H4? a) four ? , one ? b) four ? , two ? c) five ? , one ? d) five ? , two ? e) six ? , zero ? Answer: c 5. How many sigma (? ) bonds and pi (? ) bonds are in carbon monoxide? a) three ? , zero ? b) two ? , one ? c) two ? , two ? d) one ? , two ? e) zero ? , three ? Answer: d 6. How many sigma (? ) bonds and pi (? ) bonds are in the following molecule? a) seven ? nd three ? b) seven ? and two ? c) five ? and five ? d) five ? and three ? e) five ? and two ? Answer: a 7. To form a molecule with a trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry, what set of pure atomic orbitals must be mixed? a) one s and three p b) one s, three p, and one d c) one s, three p, and two d d) two s, six p, and two d e) two s, six p, and four d Answer: b 8. What is the maximum number o f hybridized orbitals formed by a fluorine atom? a) 1b) 2c) 3d) 4e) 6 Answer: d 9. What is the hybridization of either carbon atom in acetylene, C2H2? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: a 10. What is the hybridization of the nitrogen atom in NCl3? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: c 11. What is the hybridization of the xenon atom in XeF2? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: d 12. What is the hybridization of the central nitrogen atom in nitrite ion, NO2-? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: b 13. What is the hybridization of the chlorine atom in chlorite ion, ClO2-? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: c 14. What is the hybridization of the central atom in a molecule with a square-planar molecular geometry? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: e 15. What is the hybridization of each carbon atom in benzene, C6H6? Benzene contains a six-member carbon ring. a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: b 16. For which of the following molecules does the central carbon atom have sp2 hybridization? a) Cl2COb) CHCl3c) CS2d) CH2Cl2e) HCN Answer: a 17. For which of the following molecules and ions does the central nitrogen atom have sp3 hybridization? a) NO2-b) HNO3c) NOBrd) NBr3e) HNO2 Answer: d 18. For which of the following molecules and ions does the central atom have sp hybridization: NO2+, O3, and I3-? a) NO2+ onlyb) O3 onlyc) I3- onlyd) O3 and I3-e) I3- and NO2+ Answer: a 9. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp3 hybridized and has two lone pairs of electrons? a) bent b) linear c) trigonal-planar d) trigonal-pyramidal e) trigonal-bipyramidal Answer: a 20. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp3d2 hybridized and has one lone pair of electrons? a) tetrahedral b) trigonal-bipyramidal c) square-planar d) square-pyramidal e) see-saw Answer: d 21. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp2 hybridized, has three sigma bonds, and one pi bond? a) trigonal-planar b) trigonal-pyramidal c) bent d) T-shaped e) tetrahedral Answer: a 2. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp3d hybridized and has one lone pair of eletrons? a) trigonal bipyramidal b) trigonal-pyramidal c) see-saw d) tetrahedral e) square-planar Answer: c 23. What is the hybridization of a central atom that has four sigma bonds and has no lone pairs of electrons? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: c 24. Upon heating, CaCO3 decomposes to CaO and CO2. What change in the hybridization of carbon occurs in this reaction? a) sp to sp2b) sp2 to sp3c) sp3 to spd) sp2 to spe) no change Answer: d 25. One product of the combustion of ethane, C2H6, is carbon dioxide. What change in hybridization of the carbon occurs in this reaction? a) sp3 to sp2b) sp3 to spc) sp2 to sp3d) sp2 to sp3d2e) sp2 to sp Answer: b 26. Nitric acid, HNO3, dissociates in water to form nitrate ions and hydronium ions. What change in hybridization of the nitrogen atom occurs in this dissociation? a) sp2 to sp3b) sp2 to spc) sp3 to spd) sp to sp3e) no change Answer: e 27. Which of the following hybridized atoms is not possible? a) an sp hybridized carbon atom b) an sp2 hybridized sulfur atom c) an sp3 hybridized phosphorus atom d) an sp3d hybridized oxygen atom e) an sp3d2 hybridized xenon atom Answer: d 8. Which of the following characteristics apply to SO2? 1. polar bonds 2. nonpolar molecule 3. linear molecular shape 4. sp hybridized a) 1 onlyb) 1 and 2c) 3 and 4d) 1, 2, and 3e) 1, 2, 3, and 4 Answer: a 29. Dichloromethane, CH2Cl2, is a common organic solvent. Which of the following statements concerning dichloromethane is/are CORRECT? 1. CH2Cl2 has two isomers. For one i somer of CH2Cl2, the chlorine atoms are adjacent to each other and the molecule is polar. 2. CH2Cl2 has two isomers. For one isomer of CH2Cl2, the chlorine atoms are on opposites sides of the carbon atom and the molecule is nonpolar. 3. The hybridization of the central carbon atom is sp3. a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 onlyd) 1 and 2e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: c 30. For which of the following compounds is it possible for cis and trans isomers to exist? a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 only d) 1 and 2e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: b 31. Which of the underlined atoms (C1, C2, N, and O) are sp2 hybridized? a) C1 and C2 b) C1, N, and O c) N and O d) O and C2 e) O only Answer: a 9. 3 Molecular Orbital Theory 32. All of the following statements concerning molecular orbital (MO) theory are correct EXCEPT a) the Pauli exclusion principle is obeyed. b) Hund’s rule is obeyed. ) electrons are assigned to orbitals of successively higher energy. d) a bonding molecular orbital is lower in energy than its parent atomic orbitals. e) the combination of two atomic orbitals creates only one molecular orbital. Answer: e 33. Atomic orbitals combine most effectively to form molecular orbitals when a) electrons in the orbitals have no spins. b) electrons in the orbitals have the same spin. c) the atomic orbitals are hybridized. d) the atomic orbitals have similar energies. e) p-orbitals are half-filled. Answer: d 34. A molecular orbital that decreases the electron density between two nuclei is said to be ________. ) hybridizedb) bondingc) antibondingd) pi-bondinge) nonpolar Answer: c The following molecular orbital diagram may be used for problems 35-48. For oxygen and fluorine, the ? 2p orbital should be lower in energy than the ? 2p. However, the diagram will still yield correct bond order and magnetic behavior for these molecules. |Energy | |________ |? *2p | | | | | | |________ | |________ |? 2p | | | | | | | |________ |? 2p | | | | | | |________ | |________ |? 2p | | | | | | | |________ |? 2s | | | | | | | |________ |? 2s | | | | | | | |________ |? *1s | | | | | | | |________ |? s | 35. According to molecular orbital theory, which of the following species is the most likely to exist? a) H22-b) He2c) Li22-d) Be2e) Be22- Answer: e 36. A ccording to molecular orbital theory, which of the following species is least likely to exist? a) Be2b) F22+c) C22-d) Li2e) B22- Answer: a 37. According to molecular orbital theory, which of the following species has the highest bond order? a) F2b) F22+c) C22-d) Li2e) B22+ Answer: c 38. According to molecular orbital theory, what is the bond order of oxygen, O2? a) 1b) 3/2c) 2d) 5/2e) 3 Answer: c 39. According to molecular orbital theory, what is the bond order of N2-? a) 1b) 3/2c) 2d) 5/2e) 3 Answer: d 40. According to molecular orbital theory, which of the following lists ranks the oxygen species in terms of increasing bond order? a) O22+ < O22- < O2 b) O22- < O2 < O22+ c) O2 < O22+ < O22- d) O2 < O22- < O22+ e) O22+ < O2 < O22- Answer: b 41. Consider the molecules B2, C2, N2 and O2. Which two molecules have the same bond order? a) B2 and C2b) B2 and O2c) C2 and N2d) C2 and O2e) N2 and O2 Answer: d 42. Use molecular orbital theory to predict which species is paramagnetic. ) N2b) O2c) F2d) Li2e) H2 Answer: b 43. Use molecular orbital theory to predict which ion is paramagnetic. a) F22+b) O22-c) O22+d) N22+e) B22- Answer: a 44. What is the molecular orbital configuration of F2? a) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)2 b) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)2 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)2 c) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? *2p)4 d) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)6 e) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)4 Answer: e 45. What is the molecular orbital configuration of N22+? a) [core electrons] (? s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)2 b) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 c) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)2 (? 2p)2 d) [core electrons] (? 2s)4 (? *2s)4 e) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)2(? *2p)4 Answer: b 46. Assume that the molecular orbital energy diagram for a homonuclear diatomic molecule applies to a heteronuclear diatomic molecule. What is the molecular orbital configuration of NO? a) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)1 b) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)2 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)2 c) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? 2s)2 (? 2p)2 (? 2p)3 d) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)1 e) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)2 Answer: a 47. Assuming that the molecular orbital energy diagram for a homonuclear diatomic molecule appli es to a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, determine which of the following species has the highest bond order. a) NO-b) OF-c) CN-d) O2e) NO Answer: c 48. Assuming that the molecular orbital energy diagram for a homonuclear diatomic molecule applies to a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, determine which of the following species is paramagnetic. a) NO+b) COc) CN-d) OF-e) NO Answer: e 49. Which molecule will have the following valence molecular orbital level energy diagram? |? *2p | | | | |? *2p | | | | |? 2p | |[pic] | | |? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | a) Li2b) Be2c) B2d) C2e) N2 Answer: e 50. The following valence molecular orbital energy level diagram is appropriate for which one of the listed species? |? 2p | | | | |? *2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? 2p | |[pic] | | |? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | a) B22-b) C22-c) N22-d) O22-e) F22- Answer: c 51. Which molecule will have the following valence molecular orbital energy level diagram? |? *2p | | | | |? *2p | | | | |? 2p | | | | ? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | a) Li2b) Be2c) B2d) C2e) F2 Answer: d 52. In the NO2- ion, each atom can be viewed as sp2 hybridized. Thus, each atom has one remaining unhybridized p orbital. How many ? 2p molecular orbitals (including both bonding and antibonding orbitals) are form ed using the unhybridized p orbitals? a) 1b) 3c) 4d) 6e) 12 Answer: b 53. Benzene, C6H6, consists of a six member ring of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms. Each carbon atom has one unhybridized p orbital. How many ? p bonding, antibonding, and nonbonding molecular orbitals exist for benzene? a) Three ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; two bonding and one antibonding. b) Three ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; one bonding, one antibonding, and one nonbonding. c) Six ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; three bonding and three antibonding. d) Six ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; two bonding, two nonbonding, and two antibonding. e) Twelve ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; six bonding and six antibonding. Answer: c Short Answer Questions 54. Which theory, valence bond or molecule orbital, correctly predicts the existence of paramagnetic molecules? Answer: molecular orbital theory 55. In valence bond theory, each sigma bond in CH4 is formed from the overlap of a hydrogen atom’s 1s orbital with a ____ hybridized orbital on the carbon atom. Answer: sp3 56. In molecular orbital theory, the bond order is defined as 1/2(the number of electrons in ________ orbitals minus the number of electrons in antibonding orbitals). Answer: bonding 57. Triiodide ion, I3-, has a trigonal-bipyramidal electron-pair geometry and a linear molecular geometry. The hybridization of the central iodine atom is ________. Answer: sp3d 58. The hybridization of the xenon atom in XeOF4 is ________. Answer: sp3d2 59. Draw a Lewis structure of xenon trioxide. What is the hybridization of the xenon atom in this molecule? Answer: The hybridization is sp3. 60. Draw the valence molecular orbital energy level diagram for nitrogen monoxide, NO. |? *2p | |[pic] | | |? *2p | | | | |? 2p | |[pic] | | |? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | Answer: ———————– [pic] [pic] [pic] [pic]

Climate Change And Global Warming - 1109 Words

When the term Global Warming is mention, people often think of it as a progression in change of climate. Climate change, according to Kaufmann and Cleveland â€Å"is a shift in the long-term average weather†. (pg. 269) Climate change can either refer to a decrease in average temperatures meaning a colder environment, or it can be increase in temperature resulting in a much warmer environment. Several factors are responsible for theses changes in climate a few examples being solar changes and emission and reabsorption of carbon into the atmosphere. It seems as though there are many conflicting theories and opinions on global warming, which is why it can be difficult understanding what exactly it means. We are told that climate change is†¦show more content†¦They have control group that represents the natural variability and then they compare their results to see if significant climate change did in fact occur. One study done on climate change in somewhat recent years stated â€Å"In February 2005 scientists announced that 2004 was the fourth warmest year since 1860, the first year for which scientists have reasonably reliable direct measurements of Earth’s average temperature. Nine of the warmest years since 1860 have occurred since 1990. This string of warm years is unlikely to be the result of random change.† (Kaufmann and Cleveland, pg. 277) These findings show a clear detection in climate change, more specifically an increase in climate change. Once climate change has been detected it is important to find out what factors exactly caused the changes. This is called attribution. â€Å"Attribution is the process of establishing a cause-and-effect relationship between human activity and the observed change in climate.† (Kaufmann and Cleveland, pg. 280) Attribution is important in determining the different causes of climate change and distinguishing how much of that change is related to natural factors and how much of it is m an made. Understanding the difference is important because although a certain amount of natural changes is expected, being aware of our own attributions will likely help society determine new ways to reduce the rate at which we effect the climate change. The ultimate goal